Sustainable Architecture:
The History, Movement, Solutions, and Effectiveness
Laura Brown
MRHS Senior Global Capstone
May 8, 2020
Introduction:
Planet Earth has been suffering as a result of human activities. At the 2019 General Assembly of the United Nations high-level meeting on Climate and Sustainable Development, General Assembly President, Maria Fernanda Espinosa Garcés of Ecuador, announced that only 11 years remain to avoid irreversible damage on our environment(“Only 11 Years Left…”)This gives the world until about 2030 to alter our lifestyles to prevent a catastrophe that will ultimately lead to our own demise.
Each industry must lower their rates of consumption to aid in the fight. Currently, the architecture and building industry is responsible for “40% of the urban carbon footprint”(Armstrong & Spiller, 2010). As architects have come to realize the impact of their industry, many have pushed for ‘sustainable’ or ‘green’ architecture that is carbon neutral to combat climate change.
Throughout the world, there have been new developments and solutions that could aid in the success of sustainable architecture, such as Michael Reynolds’ Earthships, the use of Vernacular Architecture in Iran, combining synthetic biology with architecture, or using salvaged materials. Additionally, many professionals in the industry are arguing for more drastic improvements in sustainable architecture to aid the environment more effectively. Although there have been positive steps in sustainable architecture, these methods need to be widely adopted now in order to prevent worse consequences of climate change.
The History of Sustainable Architecture:
Sustainable architecture can be defined as “the practice of designing buildings which create living environments that work to minimize the human use of resources”(Blanchfield, 2011). The background on the processes of sustainable architecture, the growth of the movement, and the organizations involved all greatly influence the field today.
There are multiple ideas of what sustainable architecture should be. For example, some believe that this should replicate stable ecosystems, or that a structure should hold a spiritual value, while others think that this means a structure should produce more energy than it uses. The United Nations has outlined five principles for sustainable architecture as part of their Sustainable Development Goals. These principles are “healthful interior environment” meaning that the building’s materials and systems do not emit toxic substances into the atmosphere within. Next, is “resource efficiency” which entails that the building uses minimal energy and resources. Following that is “ecologically benign materials” that do not create further destruction of the environment. Then there is “environmental form” that asks that the design of the building does not disrupt the natural environment negatively. Finally, there is “good design” which calls for the building to be built to be efficient, long-lasting, and beautiful (Blanchfield, 2011).
These principles are just some of the defining factors of sustainable architecture, presently, sustainable architecture is commonly achieved through the use of renewable materials, energy efficiency or creating a carbon-neutral space. According to the European Parliament, “Carbon neutrality means having a balance between emitting carbon and absorbing carbon from the atmosphere in carbon sinks”(European Parliament, 2019). In the context of a building, based on findings from the Light House Sustainable Building Centre Society of Vancouver, carbon neutrality can be approached through, “1. Integrating passive design strategies, 2. Designing a high performance building envelope, 3. Specifying energy efficient HVAC systems, lighting and appliances, 4. Installing on-site renewable energy, 5. Offsetting”(Carruthers, Ap, Casavant, & Eng, 2013). Additionally, a common practice of sustainable architecture is improving the insulation of a building by sealing windows and doors more effectively. Improving insulation reduces the amount of energy used to fuel heating and cooling, or eliminates the systems entirely. Implementing such practices in the field of architecture has been a trying and long process.
The concept of sustainable architecture has been around for centuries but has gained more traction in the past fifty years. Throughout the 1960s and ‘70s in the United States, there was a surge of Environmentalism with the movement gaining more political attention after the OPEC oil crisis. During this period, the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Clean Water Act, and many more are established due to this growing movement. In the spring of 1989, Kansas City architect Bob Berkebile set out to establish a solid connection between the environmental movement and architecture. Berkebile petitioned the American Institute of Architects (AIA) to create a committee devoted to studying and promoting environmentally friendly solutions to the industry (American Experience, 2017). He succeeded in developing this new committee, becoming the chair of Committee on the Environment (COTE) which collaborated with the United States EPA to research and create architectural guidelines. This committee led to the development of the U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC) in 1993; the group that piloted the rating system Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design, generally known as LEED.
The USGBC describes the system as, “LEED provides a framework for healthy, highly efficient, and cost-saving green buildings. LEED certification is a globally recognized symbol of sustainability achievement and leadership”(“U.S. Green Building Council,” 2015). A project receiving a LEED certification(certified, silver, gold, or platinum), is considered a highly sustainable structure and can gain a better reputation. Approximately 94,000 commercial buildings have received a LEED certification in 167 countries (Barth, 2018). The buildings that achieve a LEED certification, or are considered ‘sustainable’, vary in their forms and their intentions to remain environmentally friendly.
The sustainable architecture and environmental movement share a similar timeline within the United States. The organizations and regulations created are used globally, helping to implement more ‘green’ buildings. As the push for environmentalism today grows sustainable architecture will likely follow in suit.
Solutions and Types of Sustainable Architecture:
Earthships
American architect Michael Reynolds has been a leader of sustainable architecture since his career began, known for his unconventional methods. Reynolds is the creator of Earthships, homes made of recycled materials that are virtually “off the grid”. In an interview with Bryan Welch of Mother Earth News, Reynolds told of how he came to the idea of Earthships, “Michael Reynolds said four mystical beings, whom he called ‘wizards’, appeared to him in psychedelic visions and gave him ideas that have guided his work. He wrote that the wizards taught him to ‘de-normalize’ his thinking and tap into his own, personal ‘energy band.’”(Welch, 2012). In the early 1970s, Reynolds used his “visions” to implement his new form of housing in New Mexico. Sticking to the ideals of sustainable architecture, Earthships were built to be energy independent, aesthetically pleasing and liveable, and utilize wasted, or recycled, materials in order to accomplish Reynolds’ six principles: shelter, power, water, sewage, food, and garbage (Ross, 2017).
Earthships, also known as Biotecture structures, were designed to be able to be built by anyone once they are taught the basics. Reynolds wanted to solve several issues at once by providing all the necessary systems needed to survive within these structures. While other sustainable structures aim to reduce the energy they use with LED lights or energy efficient appliances, Earthships are entirely energy independent and do not rely on large scale electrical grids to run. Each Biotecture house produces its own electricity through the use of photovoltaic solar electricity and wind turbines which are adjusted to fit the size of the home and for costs. Earthship Biotecture, Reynolds company, claims that, “[...] an Earthship’s electrical needs are about 25 percent of that of a conventional home”(2014). The homes have such a low demand for energy due to the solar panels, efficient appliances, and the process in which the house is built.
Earthships are often built into south-facing hillsides to be exposed to sunlight for the majority of the day which aids the structure in heating and cooling itself without the use of energy. To regulate the interior temperature on its own, the walls of an Earthship are created using “thermal mass ‘bricks’” that is constructed of old automobile tires packed with dirt, and weigh roughly 300 pounds each. These tires are laid out like bricks to create the load-bearing walls on three sides of the house, in the process, removing the need for a concrete foundation. The bricks form 4 foot thick walls that insulate the home by absorbing heat. The south-facing wall is primarily made of insulated glass to capture heat from the sun to warm the house. To further regulate the temperature of the structure, a ventilation system with the windows is used to bring in hot or cold air. Most of the interior walls are created with adobe or concreate that is layered with recycled glass bottles. This use of wasted materials aids in limiting the amount of garbage that ends up in the landfill or nature, damaging the environment. Additionally, limiting the amount of nonrenewable energy used within a household for heating/cooling and electricity, reduces the carbon footprint of the home since less fossil fuels are being burned.
Reynolds’ Biotecture structures also do not rely on public water supplies. Earthships utilize rain and snowmelt to collect water that is stored in large cisterns. Earthship Biotecture calculates the amount of water collected, “Each inch of rain collected from a square foot of roof equals ⅔ of a gallon of water. Multiply that by the total square footage of the roof and number of inches of rain per year”(2014). It also claims that “Every drop of water that lands on an Earthship roof is used four times”. The harvested water is filtered prior to being used for laundry, showers, drinking, and washing. Earthships utilize greywater systems, which collect wastewater to reuse throughout the house in the interior gardens, which also filter the water to be used again. This water is used as toilet water. Then the greywater reaches its final destination at a septic tank that overflows to hydrate exterior plants. Additionally, Earthships often grow their own food by utilizing the south-facing windows for light and warmth. The indoor plants provide fresh air within the house, and the year-round food enables residents to save money on food.
Many Earthship residents live in communities within the U.S. throughout New Mexico, and Colorado. But with Reynolds’ Earthship Biotecture Academy, he has been able to teach students and fans how to build their own structure. This has brought Earthships to a global scale, finding some in a dozen countries(Welch, 2012), including Jamaica, Mexico, India, and Japan. Reynolds’ creation is very different from traditional structures since they do not follow standard building codes. This has created issues between Reynolds and the AIA and those who have tried to replicate his structures.
The issues that Earthships are designed to solve enable these structures to be a solution to the wastefulness of the industry. These homes are both carbon neutral and contribute to the environment but their unconventional looks and creation have stunted much of their growth to the public. Earthships often do not resemble traditional homes which can deter many from building them. Additionally, Earthships require instruction or direct construction from Earthship Biotecture since they do not align with building codes. Reynold’s structures could be influential to combating climate change, but adjustments may need to be made to fully bring Earthships to the public.
Vernacular Iranian Architecture
In Iran, research has been conducted on techniques from the past that are less common today to integrate sustainable architecture into their cities. Two studies from the American Eurasian Network for Scientific Information look into the integration of vernacular, or traditional, Iranian architecture with modern methods to create sustainable structures. One focuses on the benefits of the central courtyards, the other on the past and future use of vernacular architecture in the city of Kashan. Since Iran has a very hot and dry climate, the energy consumption of buildings for cooling is of concern when designing new structures. Traditional Iranian homes in Kashan are built close together in the direction of desirable winds and constructed with local materials such as brick or clay. These traditional homes also are built with tall, thick walls, oriented specifically, and have central courtyards that each serve a purpose. The precise use of each element of a traditional Iranian home inspired the revival of such techniques to create sustainable structures today.
As the climate of Iran has remained hot and dry, the issue of keeping buildings cool with the use of minimal energy persists. The thick walls and ceilings of traditional Iranian structures are essential to regulating the interior temperature, as seen with Earthsips. This method can be incorporated in modern buildings due to the benefits researchers Hamidreza Shoaie and Farah Habib state. “There are a few benefits to this thickness, first it increases the delay (the time between absorbing the heat from one side of the wall and letting it out from the other side), and second it decreases the temperature swing between day and night since the heat absorbed during the day is released at night. Third, thick walls lose heat at night through transformation, therefore during the day the walls are cooler than human skin” (Shoaie & Habib, 2013). The walls are able to do this since they are formed out of native mud/clay bricks which maintain the proper temperatures. Additionally they are local resources which eliminates the use of harmful transportation. The orientation of the structure is important to the temperatures of the building. Orienting the buildings in the direction of North and South are preferable to maximise the breezes and reduce the temperature in the summer, but then maximize the solar heat in the winter. These buildings in cities are often built close together along narrow, winding alleys since the tall walls can create shade and also protect from wind or sand storms.
A study conducted in 2011 by the American Eurasian Network for Scientific Information focuses on the central courtyard and its influence on sustainable architecture. The central courtyard is known to be the ‘heart’ of an Iranian household in spatial, social and environmental aspects. Central courtyards are rectangular, and their construction is determined as follows, “[...] the average sizes of the central yards are generally determined according to the latitude. They are narrow enough to maintain a shaded area during the heat of the day in summer, but wide enough to receive solar radiation in winter” (Shoaie & Habib, 2013). These yards provide an outdoor, shaded area for the house that is cool enough to spend most of the day, but also often have live, native plants which purify, cool and hydrate the air. Rooms are situated along the yard so they are able to receive the air from the plants, and/or ponds. This natural air filtration can eliminate the need for energy consuming systems that artificially filter, and purify the air. Vernacular homes also contained wind catchers which were placed on roofs near the courtyards in the direction of strong winds. These wind catcher would go through the building, circulating the cooler air caught from the wind like an air conditioner today would. In recent years, old wind catchers have been the model for some modern passive cooling systems which can help decrease the use of energy.
Vernacular Iranian architecture is helpful in determining methods architects might be used today since the builders of that time period did not have modern technology. As Shoaie and Habib state, “Sustainable architecture force[s] us to re-think what we do and synchronize traditional methods of construction and the use of domestic materials”(Shoaie & Habib, 2013). The studies conclude that developing traditional strategies into more modern adaptations, while maintaining the minimal use of resources, can aid the implementation of sustainable architecture in regions that have not taken a step in this direction. Several European countries are also considering using past methods, such as in Sweden the revival of the ancient Swedish Bole, a post-and-beam construction that can be taken apart and moved (Martin, 2000). Referring to past architectural methods can be useful to lowering structures’ environmental impacts since they were initially built without electricity. These past methods could lead to further developments in sustainable architecture that will aid in combating and decreasing the effects of climate change.
Alternative Building Materials
Throughout the sustainable architecture movement, there is a push to use alternative materials more. Alternative materials are considered elements of sustainable architecture since they do not put more pressure on our resources. Such alternatives include salvaged materials, local resources, or natural alternatives.
In Canada, the use of salvaged materials is being promoted since it will help decrease the 35% of waste from construction and demolition that ends up in Canadian waste streams(Gorgolewski, 2010). Professor and director of the Department of Architectural Science graduate program at Ryerson University, Mark Gorgolewski predicts that the use of salvaged materials will increase within the next decade:
Meanwhile, the growing worldwide demand for new construction materials is putting so much pressure on natural resources that the Worldwatch Institute estimates that by the year 2030, the world will have run out of many of them. At that point, building with salvaged goods and ‘waste’ diverted from landfill won’t be the exception; it will be the norm (Gorgolewski, 2010).
A majority of construction materials used today are shipped worldwide, such as steel from Russia or marble from Italy. This uses more fossil fuels and can create more waste during the travel process. Gorgolewski notes how reusing materials has been done for centuries, for instance, many of the medieval buildings in Europe were built using stone from Roman ruins or that the boards of old barns in Eastern Canada have been used as the siding for houses.
Companies such as Mountain Equipment Coop or Vancouver architect firm Busby, Perkins and Will, have utilized salvaged materials to construct their new buildings. The two took advantage of materials from their old buildings or collecting wasted materials, and designed their building based on what they were able to collect. Another example of using salvaged materials includes the architect firm Single Speed Design, that took the materials from the demolition involved in Boston’s Big Dig. The firm used the concrete slabs that once supported the demolished highway to hold rooftop gardens. Gorgolewski addresses that the use of salvaged materials is growing but can be difficult for the industry to welcome since it is unconventional, and, at the moment, can be more expensive. The cost can be higher due to the additional labor that may be needed to acquire such materials, or to test the durability. Gorgolewski believes that these costs will lower soon as more people join the movement, also that using salvaged materials can reduce the costs of shipping and buying.
Similarly, writer Same Martin of Mother Earth News addresses the importance of utilizing alternative materials. Martin describes an assessment architects can use to determine the ecological footprint of their materials, Life Cycle Analysis or LCA, determines four basic qualities about each material that a project is planning to use,“Where and how is the material harvested? How was it manufactured or produced? How will it be used in the building process? What will happen to it once it’s finished being used” (Martin, 2000). Although LCA is considered too time consuming to be conducted for every material, it is an important tool to use if the environmental effect of a material comes into question. Martin also lists “greener” alternatives to regular construction materials. He suggests the use of concrete made with fly ash rather than standard cement concrete since fly ash is a “byproduct of coal-f[i]red electric plants, you can reduce waste and pollution”(Martin, 2000) in the process.
Utilizing alternative of ‘green’ materials while building is one of the easier solutions to fulfill. These alternatives often go hand in hand with their more ‘harmful’ counterparts so minimal adjustments need to be made for construction. The difficulty in using these ‘greener’ materials is that they can be more difficult to find. Alternative building materials can help combat the harmfulness of construction but more marketing and implementation of these products into stores needs to be created.
Bamboo Housing
In addition to using salvaged and “greener” materials, another alternative material to utilize is organic building resources. Jack Elliott, an associate professor in Design and Environmental Analysis at Cornell University, developed the Triakonta System technology which is a triacontahedron shape that was first seen by Johannes Kepler in the 1600s. Elliott’s technology was first tested in the field by Cornell students for building hurricane and earthquake resistant structures from bamboo in the Caribbean. The students built an outdoor classroom for the Puntacana Ecological Foundation in the Dominican Republic.
To incorporate more elements of sustainable architecture, the bamboo used was selected carefully, “The type of bamboo, called guadua, is a fast-growing, large-diameter variety from the Amazon basin that Chris Dennis ‘13 hoped to cultivate in Haiti” (Segelken, 2016). If the bamboo was locally grown, costs and waste produced to transport materials to the island would disappear. The strong bamboo combined with the Triakonta System creates a durable and reusable framework for the Puntacana ecological Foundation. The students hope for the technique to be used throughout the Caribbean islands to build homes that can withstand the natural disasters the region has come to know.
Using organic resources such as bamboo, to construct houses can not only cut down the environmental impact but could decrease costs. Locally grown resources eliminate the need to transport goods across countries or oceans which is both expensive and high in emissions. Additionally, using organic resources to build is another easily obtained solution to achieving a sustainable structure. This method is becoming more common as the movement grows.
Effectiveness and Issues of Sustainable Architecture
Within the architecture community, there is debate as to whether current sustainable architecture practices are effective at preserving and improving our environment. Although several of the solutions and practices above detail the use of recycled or renewable resources in construction in addition to having a low impact on the environment in operation, the majority of structures made as sustainable architecture do not implement such methods. L.H.M Vefago and J. Avellaneda of the School of Architecture at the Technical University of Catalonia, Spain, describes one of the primary issues of sustainable architecture, “Many architects have a focus only on energy efficiency in the operation phase of the building’s lifecycle and forget the other issues related to sustainable architecture”(Vefago & Avellaneda, n.d.). Architects such as Micael Pawlyn and those a part of Architects Declare, or William McDonoough, former Dean of Architecture at the University of Virginia, argue that buildings must be more than just carbon neutral. Crook explains,“Architects must urgently go beyond creating sustainable architecture that minimises damage to the planet and design buildings that help repair it” (Crook, 2019). Meaning that buildings must contribute to solving environmental issues connected to them in addition to energy efficiency and carbon neutrality.
Pawlyn and participants of Architects Declare( a pledge to do more for the environment through architecture) say to urge others to join the fight. They believe that the industry is stuck in the mitigation process since it continues to strive to do no more harm to the environment and sustain the current conditions. Pawlyn considers LEED standards as part of the problem since they praise buildings that reach neutrality. Both he and McDonough believe that, “Our buildings must give back more than they use”(Martin, 2000), which is a high standard to hold but is not impossible to obtain.
This belief connects to a major issue found in sustainable architecture which is that not enough focus is put on the construction and outcomes of our structures. Many buildings become highly energy efficient, but continue to be built with steel that has traveled continents, or accumulate tons of waste during construction; this contradictory cycle has persisted since the start of the movement. Alexis Karolides, a senior research associate at the Rocky Mountain Institute, describes the beginning of the problem well, “‘In the ‘70s we tightened our houses up in order to save more and more energy.’[...] ‘But we continued to put more toxic substances in, Carpets, vinyl wall and floor coverings, toxic types of insulation, formaldehyde in our millwork and cabinets--all these things in a tightly enclosed house’”(Martin,2000).
This issue remains today as research conducted by Vefago and Avellaneda in their paper, “The Unsustainability of Sustainable Architecture” addresses. They note that with the focus primarily on energy efficiency other aspects are forgotten, “In this way, the necessary energy for the electrical devices used every day comes from the non-renewable sources[...] All the buildings consume around 40% of total raw material available and produce large amounts of waste during extraction, transformation, construction and demolitions”(Vefago & Avellaneda, n.d.). The two state that the energy saving qualities of these buildings are admirable, but that they are also contradictory to their intended purpose to help the environment in the process. Globalization is identified as a contributing factor for flaws in sustainability since it is a result of countries that lack their own resources and therefore need to harvest resources from other nations. These resources are then further depleted due to the demand of economically superior countries who often put less importance on conservation when it comes to the economy.
Another issue with sustainable architecture includes the production of waste from building construction or demolition. The two speak on how the root of the excess waste produced on projects is in the concepts an architect chooses, “Mistaken concepts in the design of buildings can lead to utilise materials that are not necessary”(Vefago & Avellaneda, n.d.). These materials include toxic products like PVC, paints, items containing lead or cadmium, or choosing materials that create pollution during manufacturing. Sustainable buildings continue to disregard the impact its production has on the environment since they believe the ultimate goal is achieved in operation.
Architects, like those of Architects Declare, have been pushing for more efficient solutions that give back to the environment rather than cover up some of the issues. As Earthships and the other types of sustainable architecture described above, obtainable fixes to issues in sustainable architecture include: orientation of building, waste management, ventilation, renewable energy, recycled materials, and additional vegetation(Ghani, 2010). These provide solutions to the issues such as construction waste and harmful materials, but also aid in the new goal of giving back to the environment. The addition of vegetation can improve air quality, and the management of waste can decrease water pollution.
A new solution that Pawlyn praises is the use of biomimicry or integrating synthetic biology into architecture, “‘That’s one of the exciting things about biomimicry, it points towards a very different relationship with nature, looking to nature as a source of wonder and as a source of some of the best solutions that we need to tackle that challenges of the present day’”(Crook, 2019). In the article, “Living quarters: synthetic biology could offer truly sustainable approaches to the built environment”, the use of engineered, airborne bacteria to detect air pollutants in buildings is described. Students at the University of Cambridge, UK engineered Escherichia coli to change color when in the presence of heavy metals in the air(Armstrong & Spiller, 2010). The article also details how synthetic biology could be used to create coatings for buildings that absorb Carbon Dioxide and other pollutants.
The benefits of sustainable architecture can be overshadowed by the issues within the industry. Although many architects have the right intentions with their buildings they often forget to look at the entire picture and miss important steps. The problems within the industry seem to primarily lay in the construction and design rather than the concepts of sustainable architecture.
Conclusions
Though the effectiveness of sustainable architecture is still up to debate within the industry, and whether these structures improve the environment continues to be hypothetical, the uses of sustainable architecture shows promise. With the environmental movement gaining more attention as the situation of Earth’s climate worsens, sustainable architecture stands as a crucial solution. When sticking to the original ideals of the concept, the new structures built sustainably can help combat the effects of climate change.
As research shows, there is still work to be done to achieve high functioning sustainable structures. The framework seems to be set as to where architects must go to next based on the work done by Michael Reynolds, research on Iranian vernacular architecture, the use of salvaged and alternative materials, and integration of synthetic biology. These solutions/types of sustainable architecture can solve both the issues within the architecture industry and the climate once widely adopted. Work within the sustainable architecture movement must continue to be done to develop more answers to our climate problems.
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